About the Book

Appropriate for students with a general chemistry background, Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition helps students understand the underlying chemical processes that are operating in the environment while demonstrating how difficult it is to measure these systems. The author emphasizes that all living and nonliving parts of our environment comprise of chemicals and that all of the natural processes continuously occurring in the environment involve chemical reactions. With this concept of interdependence, students begin to see that without some understanding of chemistry, it is impossible to fully understand environmental issues such as ozone depletion, global warming, air and water pollution, and the hazards of radioactivity. The Third Edition includes a two new chapters, one on sustainability and green chemistry and another on soil chemistry and another on soil chemistry and agriculture, as well as numerous updates throughtout to address the changes in the field.

New and Key Features of the Third Edition:
• New chapters on green chemistry and soil chemistry.
• A new key-term glossary at the end of the text.
• Additional chemical equations throughout the text to reinforce important concepts.

About the Author

James E. Girard, PhD -American University Dr. James Girard is Professor and Chairman of the Chemistry Department at American University. He teaches analytical, environmental and forensic chemistry, as well as chemistry for non-science majors. Since he has been at the American University, he has received more than 25 grants totaling more than 3 million dollars and has published over 60 research articles. Professor Girard is a specialist in analytical chemistry. His research focuses on the methods and techniques used to separate and identify complex mixtures. He has also developed methods for the analysis of environmental pollutants in soil and water, the amount of neurotransmitter present in human serum, the concentration of disinfectants in hospital disinfectants, the composition of polymers and the separation and identification of genetic material from DNA. At American University he has supervised over 25 Masters Theses and 30 PhD dissertations. Professor Girard is the recipient of awards for excellence in teaching and scholarship. He was the 1995 recipient of the Leo Schubert Award for Outstanding Teaching of Science at the College Level from the Washington Academy of Sciences. In addition, Professor Girard has served as an expert witness in court cases involving environmental, patent infringement and personal injury.

Table of Contents:
Preface • Acknowledgments Chapter 1: Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy • The Formation of the Universe • Galaxies and Stars • The Planets in Our Solar System • The Sun • Differentiation of the Earth into Layers • Heating of the Earth • The Core • The Mantle • The Crust • Plate Tectonics • Relative Abundance of the Elements in the Earth • Formation of the Oceans • Formation of the Atmosphere • Rocks and Minerals • The Rock Cycle • Igneous Rocks • Sedimentary Rocks • Metamorphic Rocks • Rocks as Natural Resources • Ores and Metals • Iron • Aluminum • Copper • Strategic Metals • Mineral Reserves • The Origin of Life on Earth • The Uniqueness of the Earth • The Environment • Ecosystems • Producers and Consumers • The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems • What Is Energy? • Energy Transformations • Food Chains and Trophic Levels • Energy and Biomass • Concentration Units • Molarity and Molar Solutions • Parts per Million • Parts per Billion • Nutrient Cycles • The Carbon Cycle • The Nitrogen Cycle • The Oxygen Cycle • The Phosphorus Cycle • Nature’s Cycles in Balance • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 2: Earth’s Soil and Agriculture: Feeding the Earth’s People • Population Growth • Population Arithmetic • The Development of Modern Agriculture Soil • Soil Texture • The Inorganic Component • Humus: The Organic Component • Soil pH • Soil Erosion • Plant Nutrients • Nitrogen • Anhydrous Ammonia • Ammonium Salts • Urea • Phosphorus • Potassium • Secondary Nutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur • Micronutrients • Mixed Fertilizers • The Use of Synthetic Inorganic Fertilizers • Organic Fertilizers • Composting • New Varieties of Crop Plants • Can We Feed Tomorrow’s World? • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 3: The Earth’s Atmosphere • The Major Layers in the Atmosphere • Temperature Changes in the Atmosphere • Pressure and Density Changes in the Atmosphere • Composition of the Atmosphere • Units Used to Describe Atmospheric Chemistry • Parts per Million, Parts per Billion, and Parts per Trillion • Molecules per Cubic Centimeter • Micrograms per Cubic Meter • Energy Balance • Electromagnetic Radiation • The Earth’s Heat Balance • Particles in the Atmosphere • Suspended Particulate Matter • Aerosol Particles • Anthropogenic Sources of Particulate Matter • Residence Times of Particles • Control of Particulate Emissions • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 4: Global Warming and Climate Change • Global Temperature from the Ice Ages to Present Time • The Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide • Infrared Absorption and Molecular Vibrations • Residence Time of Atmospheric Gases • Atmospheric Water Vapor • Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide • Atmospheric Methane • Atmospheric Nitrous Oxide • Atmospheric Chlorofluorocarbons • Radiative Forcing • Radiative Forcing Caused by Human Activity • Radiative Forcing Caused by Nature • Evidence for Global Warming • Effects of Global Warming • Slowing Global Warming • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 5: Chemistry of the Troposphere • Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere • Carbon Monoxide • Sources of CO • Effects of CO on Human Health • Nitrogen Oxides • Sources of NOx • Fate of Atmospheric NOx • Effects of NOx on Human Health and the Environment • Volatile Organic Compounds • Automobile Four-Cycle Internal Combustion Engine • Gasoline Powered Two-Cycle Engines • Automobile Pollutants and the Catalytic Converter • Diesel Trucks • Sulfur Dioxide • Sources of SO2 • Fate of Atmospheric SO2: Acid Rain • Effects of SO2 on Human Health and the Environment • Methods for Controlling Emissions of SO2 • Legislation to Control Emissions of SO2 • Industrial Smog • Photochemical Smog • Production of Hydroxyl Radicals • Reactions of Hydroxyl Radicals with Hydrocarbons • Abstraction of Hydrogen • Addition to Double Bonds • Secondary Smog-Forming Reactions • Ozone: A Pollutant in the Troposphere • Temperature Inversions and Smog • Regulating Air Pollution • Indoor Air Pollution • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 6: Chemistry of the Stratosphere • Dobson Unit • The Production of Ozone in the Stratosphere • Determining the Steady-State Concentration of Ozone • Catalytic Destruction of Ozone • Hydroxyl Radical Cycle • Nitric Oxide Cycle • Chlorine Cycle • Null Cycles • Depletion of the Protective Ozone Layer in the Stratosphere • Effects of Ozone Depletion on Human Health and the Environment • Ozone Loss over the Arctic and the Middle to High Latitudes • The Montreal Protocol • Alternatives to Chlorofluorocarbons • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 7: Analysis of Air and Air Pollutants • In Situ Absorption Measurements • In Situ Ozone Measurements • In Situ Carbon Dioxide Measurements • Infrared Spectrometry • Infrared Vibrational Frequencies • Remote Measurements of Atmospheric Composition • Atmospheric Trace Molecular Spectroscopy • Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere • Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer • Light Detection and Ranging • Monitoring Automotive Emissions • Automobile Emissions: Hydrocarbons • Automobile Emissions: Nitrogen Oxides • Automobile Emissions: Carbon Monoxide • Sample Handling • Monitoring Emissions from Stationary Sources • Monitoring SO2 Emissions • Pararosaniline Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of SO2 • Particulate Emissions • Fossil Fuel Combustion • Industrial Sources • Miscellaneous Sources • Monitoring Particulate Emissions • High-Volume Sampling • Separation of Particles by Size • XRF Spectrometry • Fly Ash • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 8: Water Resources • Distribution of Water on the Earth • The Composition of Natural Waters • The Hydrologic Cycle: Recycling and Purification • The Unique Properties of Water • The Water Molecule and Hydrogen Bonding • Boiling Point and Melting Point • Heat Capacity • Heat of Fusion and Heat of Vaporization • Temperature–Density Relationship • Acid–Base Properties • Carbon Dioxide in Water • Alkalinity • Acid Rain • The Effects of Acid Rain • The Causes of Acid Rain • Acid Mine Drainage • Water Use and Water Shortages • Water Management and Conservation • Water Transfer • Conservation • Potable Water from Wastewater • Desalination • Water Withdrawal, Water Consumption, and Water Pollution • Water as a Limiting Resource for Economic Growth • The Limits of Water Consumption • Water Consumption and Economic Growth • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 9: Water Pollution and Water Treatment • Types of Water Pollutants • Point and Nonpoint Sources of Water Pollutants • Disease-Causing Agents • Oxygen-Consuming Wastes • Plant Nutrients • Nitrogen • Anhydrous Ammonia • Ammonium Salts • Urea • Phosphorus • Potassium • Secondary Nutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur • Micronutrients • Mixed Fertilizers • The Use of Synthetic Inorganic Fertilizers • Plant Nutrients and Eutrophication • Control of Eutrophication • Anaerobic Decomposition of Organic Material • Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Aqueous Systems • Electron Activity and pE • Measurement of pE • Suspended Solids and Sediments • Dissolved Solids • Thermal Pollution • Pollution of Groundwater • Sewage Treatment • Primary Treatment • Secondary Treatment • Disinfection with Chlorine • Tertiary Treatment • Regulation of Water Quality • Rivers and Lakes • Drinking Water • Emerging Contaminants • Releases of Pharmaceuticals to Our Waterways • Control Methods • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 10: Analysis of Water and Wastewater • Sampling Methods • Types of Water Pollutants • Disease-Causing Agents • Microbiological Tests for Coliform • Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique • Membrane Filtration Technique • Ortho-nitrophenyl-ß-D-galactopyranoside Test • Oxygen-Consuming Wastes • Dissolved Oxygen • Total Organic Carbon • Biological Oxygen Demand • Colorimetric Methods • UV-Visible Spectrometer • Plant Nutrients • Spectrophotometric Determination of Phosphorus • Spectrophotometric Determination of Nitrogen • Dissolved Solids • Conductivity Measurements • Electrochemical Sensors • Glass pH Electrode • Ca2+-Sensing Ion-Selective Electrode • Alkalinity • Measuring Acidity of Natural Waters • Measuring Alkalinity of Natural Waters • Comparing Acidity, Alkalinity, and Hardness • Ion Chromatography • Ion Exchange • Ion Chromatography Instrument • Separation and Detection of Anions by Ion Chromatography • Radioactive Substances • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 11: Fossil Fuels: Our Major Source of Energy • Energy Use: A Historical Overview • Current Use of Energy • Energy and Power • Energy from Fuels • Petroleum • The Formation of Oil Fields • Deep-Sea Oil Platforms • Jack-up Rigs • Tension Leg Platforms • Spar Platforms • Semi-submersible Platforms • Future Deep-Sea Drilling • The Composition of Petroleum • Petroleum Refining • Octane Rating • Oil Shale and Tar Sands • Keystone • Keystone XL • The Petrochemical Industry • Oil Pollution • Natural Gas • Induced Hydraulic Fracturing • Environmental Problems Caused by Fracking • Can Fracking Cause Earthquakes? • Safe Drinking Water Act Exemption • Coal • The Formation of Coal Deposits • The Composition of Coal • Problems with Coal • Coal Gasification • Coal Liquefaction • Electricity • Sequestering CO2 • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 12: Nuclear Power • The Nature of Natural Radioactivity • Penetrating Power and Speed of the Types of Radiation • Nuclear Stability • Nuclear Reactions • Radioactive Decay Series • The Half-Life of Radioisotopes • The Harmful Effects of Radiation on Humans • Why Is Radiation Harmful? • Factors Influencing Radiation Damage • Detection of Radiation • Units of Radiation • How Much Radiation Is Harmful? • Everyday Exposure to Radiation • Natural Sources of Radiation • Radiation from Human Activities • Uses of Radioisotopes • Determining the Dates of Archeological and Geological Events • Nuclear Fission • The Energy Source in Nuclear Fission • Fission Reactions • The Atomic Bomb • Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Fission • Nuclear Energy • Nuclear Fission Reactors • The Nuclear Fuel Cycle • Problems with Nuclear Energy • Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster • Thorium Reactor: Thorium Fuel Cycle • Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor • Thorium Reactor Waste • Nuclear Breeder Reactors • Nuclear Fusion • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 13: Energy Sources for the Future • Energy-Efficient Lighting • Solar Energy • Solar Heating for Homes and Other Buildings • Electricity from Solar Thermal Power Collectors • Electricity from Photovoltaic Cells • Energy from Biomass • Burning Biomass • Production of Biogas • Biofuels • Corn Ethanol • Cellulosic Ethanol • Biodiesel • Triglycerides • Wind Power • Geothermal Energy • Water Power • Tidal Power • Energy from Hydrogen Gas • Fuel Cells* • Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell • Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell • Direct Methanol Fuel Cell • Alkaline Fuel Cell • Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell • Solid Oxide Fuel Cell • Regenerative (Reversible) Fuel Cell • Clean Cars for the Future • Energy Sources for the Twenty-First Century • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 14: Inorganic Metals in the Environment • Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals • Toxic Metals • Atomic Spectroscopy • Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy • Lead • X-Ray Fluorescence • Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry • Mercury • Cold-Vapor Atomic Absorption Determination of Mercury • Cadmium • Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy • Arsenic • AA Hydride Method for Arsenic • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 15: Organic Chemicals in the Environment • Polychlorinated Hydrocarbons • DDT • Dioxin • PCBs • Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants • Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient • Sorption on Soils • Carbon-Normalized Sorption Coefficient • Experimentally Measuring Absorption • Henry’s Law • Using the EPA’s PBT Profiler • Persistence • Bioconcentration • Toxicity • Analysis of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Environmental Samples • Gas Chromatography • Analysis of PCBs and PAHs by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry • Mass Spectrometry • Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry • Analysis of Dioxins and Furans by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry • References • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 16: Sustainability and Green Chemistry • Sustainable Consumption and Production • Five Axioms of Sustainability • Axiom 1: Any Society that Continues to Use Critical Resources Unsustainably Will Collapse • Axiom 2: Population Growth and/or Growth in the Rates of Consumption of Resources Cannot Be Sustained • Axiom 3: To Be Sustainable, the Use of Renewable Resources must Proceed at a Rate that Is Less Than or Equal to the Rate of Natural Replenishment • Axiom 4: To Be Sustainable, the Use of Nonrenewable Resources must Proceed at a Rate that Is Declining, and the Rate of Decline must Be Greater Than or Equal to the Rate of Depletion • Axiom 5: Sustainability Requires that Substances Introduced into the Environment from Human Activities Be Minimized and Rendered Harmless to Biosphere Functions • United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development • Decoupling • UN International Resource Panel • Life-Cycle Thinking • Life-Cycle Assessment • Product Life-Cycle Mapping • Identifying Inputs and Outputs • Design Checklist • Engage Suppliers • Leapfrog Technology • Sustainability and Chemistry • Green Chemistry • Green Chemistry Examples • Greener Solvents • Earth-Friendly Plastics • Replacing Chlorine • Replacing Toxic Metals • Environmentally Benign Pesticides • Atom Economy • Putting Sustainability into Practice • References • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 17: Insecticides, Herbicides, and Insect Control • Organophosphates • Carbamates • The Transmission of Nerve Impulses • Analysis of Organophosphate Insecticides in Water • Gas Chromatography Using a Flame Photometric Detector • Herbicides • High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography • Problems with Synthetic Pesticides • The Pesticide Treadmill • Health Problems • Alternative Methods of Insect Control • Chemical Communicating Substances • Pheromones • Sex Pheromones • Aggregation and Trail Pheromones • Juvenile Hormones • Allomones • Biological Controls • Sterilization • Future Farming: Less Reliance on Agricultural Chemicals • New Varieties of Crop Plants • Can We Feed Tomorrow’s World? • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 18: Toxicology • What Is Meant by “Toxic”? • Types and Routes of Exposure • Routes of Administration • Percutaneous • Inhalation • Oral • Parenteral • Dose and Response • Testing for Toxicity: The LD Test • Excretion of Chemicals from the Body • Detoxification of Chemicals by the Liver • Oxidation–Reduction Reactions • Coupling Reactions • Teratogens, Mutagens, and Carcinogens • Teratogens • Mutagens • Carcinogens • Chemicals That Cause Cancer • The Development of Cancer • Nucleic Acids • Functions of Nucleic Acids • The Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids • The Double Helix • DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes • Cell Replication • Protein Synthesis • The Genetic Code • Mechanisms of DNA Damage • Ionizing Radiation • Ultraviolet Light • Chemicals • Alkylation of DNA • Ames Test • Genetic Tests for Cancer • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 19: Asbestos • Silicates • Three-Dimensional Networks and Sheets • Long-Chain Silicates: Asbestos • Amphiboles • Serpentines: Chrysotile • Physical Properties of Asbestos Minerals • Thermal Properties of Asbestos • Chemical Resistance of Asbestos • Asbestos Diseases • The Respiratory System’s Protective Mechanisms • Fiber Drift • Regulation of Asbestos • Analytical Methods for Asbestos Fibers • Methods to Identify the Presence of Bulk Asbestos • Light Microscopy • Polarized Light Microscopy • Methods to Determine the Amount of Airborne Asbestos • Air Sampling • Phase Contrast Microscopy • Transmission Electron Microscopy • Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy • Comparing PCM and TEM Measurements • Asbestos Litigation • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Chapter 20: The Disposal of Dangerous Wastes • Careless Waste Disposal in the Past • Defining Solid Waste • Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste • MSW and the Law • Landfills • Incineration • Recycling and Resource Recovery • Source Reduction • The Problem of Hazardous Waste • RCRA: Regulation of Hazardous Waste • What Are Hazardous Wastes? • Listed Hazardous Wastes • Characteristic Hazardous Wastes • Sources of Hazardous Waste • Policy for Management and Disposal of Hazardous Waste • Waste Minimization: Process Manipulation, Recycling, and Reuse • Conversion of Hazardous Waste to a Less Hazardous or Nonhazardous Form • Incineration and Other Thermal Treatment • Chemical and Physical Treatment • Bioremediation • Perpetual Storage of Hazardous Waste • Secured Landfill • Deep-Well Injection • Surface Impoundment • EPA Methods for Testing Solid Waste • The Unsolved Problem • Superfund: Cleaning Hazardous Waste Dumpsites • Superfund Analytical Methods • Radioactive Waste • Sources of Radioactive Waste • Classification of Nuclear Waste • The Legacy from the Past • Regulation of Radioactive Waste Disposal • Low-Level Radioactive Wastes • High-Level Radioactive Wastes • Technologies for Radioactive Waste Disposal • The Post–Cold War Challenge • Additional Sources of Information • Keywords • Questions and Problems Appendix A: Solubility Products, Ksp • Appendix B: Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution at 25ºC • Appendix C: Standard Redox Potentials in Aqueous Solutions • Appendix D: Carbon Compounds: An Introduction to Organic Chemistry • Appendix E: Answers to Even-Numbered Questions Glossary • Index