About the Book

• Presented in clear, easy-to-understand language.
• Provides an introduction to common diseases that affect different organs of the body.
• Details that a good undergraduate student should know are printed on a light green background.
• Important information for bright students and postgraduates are printed on a light red background.
• Incorporates need-to-know facts for nursing students.
• Attractive full colour plates given at the end of the book for illustrating various regions of the body.
• The text is accompanied by numerous illustrations to facilitate understanding.
• Essential textbook for Nursing GNM students.

About the Author

nderbir Singh

Table of Contents:
PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY 1. Learning the Language of Medicine 3 The Subject of Anatomy 3 Main Subdivisions of the Human Body 3 Some Commonly Used Descriptive Terms 4 Structures Constituting the Human Body 7 2. A Brief Introduction to Bones, Joints and Muscles of the Body 10 The Skeleton 10 The Skull 10 The Vertebral Column 11 Skeleton of the Thorax 13 Skeleton of the Upper Limb 14 Skeleton of the Lower Limb 15 Some Features of Joints 17 Classification of Joints 18 Some Facts about Muscles 20 3. A Brief Introduction to Organ Systems of the Body 24 Introduction to the Respiratory System 24 Introduction to the Alimentary System 26 Introduction to the Urinary System 27 Introduction to the Reproductive System 28 Introduction to the Endocrine Glands 30 The Lymphoid Organs 31 Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 31 Introduction to the Nervous System 32 Autonomic Nervous System 35 4. Introduction to Body Functions 36 Some Essential Body Functions 37 Modes of Communication within the Body 38 5. Essential Chemistry 39 Atoms and Elements 39 Compounds and Molecules 41 Contentsviii Handbook of Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses (For GNM Students) Chemical Bonds 42 Introduction to Some Important Chemical Constituents of the Body 45 PART 2: CELLS AND TISSUES OF THE BODY 6. Cell Structure 51 Cell Structure 51 Basic Membrane Structure 51 The Cell Membrane 54 Cell Organelles 56 The Cytoskeleton 61 Projections from the Cell Surface 62 The Nucleus 64 Chromosomes 65 Cell Division 74 Chromosomal Sex and Sex Chromatin 80 Abnormal Cell Growth and Tumours 81 7. Epithelia and Glands 82 Classification of Epithelia 82 Glands 91 8. General Connective Tissue 94 Introductory Remarks 94 Fibres of Connective Tissue 97 Cells of Connective Tissue 98 Adipose Tissue 102 Summary of the Functions of Connective Tissues 104 9. Cartilage and Bone 106 Cartilage 106 Hyaline Cartilage 107 Fibrocartilage 108 Elastic Cartilage 109 Bone 110 Basic Facts about Bone Structure 111 Formation of Bone 116 Some Disorders of Bone 120 10. Muscle and Nerve Tissue 122 Muscle 122 Skeletal Muscle 123 Physiology of Skeletal Muscle 128 Chemical Processes Involved in Muscle Contraction 131 Cardiac Muscle 135 Smooth Muscle 136Contents ix Some Clinical Correlations of Muscle 138 Nervous Tissue 139 Neuron Structure 140 Some Physiological Properties of Neurons 144 Peripheral Nerves 146 Degeneration and Regeneration of Neurons 149 Peripheral Nerve Endings 149 Sensory Receptors 150 Exteroceptive Receptors 151 Proprioceptive Receptors 152 Neuromuscular Junctions 152 Ganglia 155 Neuroglia 155 Reflex Action 158 11. Blood 160 Plasma Proteins 161 Cellular Elements of Blood 162 Erythrocytes (Red Blood Corpuscles) and Related Topics 162 Haemoglobin 163 Anaemia 165 Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) 166 Packed Cell Volume (PCV) 167 Blood Indices 167 Blood Groups 168 Leucocytes (White Blood Corpuscles) 171 Further Facts about Lymphocytes 173 Lukaemias 175 Blood Platelets 176 Coagulation of Blood 176 Anticoagulants 178 Formation of Blood (Haemopoiesis) 178 Mononuclear Phagocyte System 180 12. Lymphoid Tissues and Immunity 182 Lymphatic Vessels 183 Lymph Nodes 183 The Spleen 187 Functions of the Spleen 189 The Thymus 190 Functions of the Thymus 192 Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue 192 Defence Mechanisms and Immunity 194 Defence Mechanisms 194 Lymphocytes and the Immune System 195 Immunity 196x Handbook of Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses (For GNM Students) 13. Skin and its Appendages 199 The Skin 199 Functions of the Skin 202 Appendages of the Skin 203 Regulation of Body Temperature 207 Healing of Wounds 208 Some Disorders of Skin 209 PART 3: THE ORGAN SYSTEMS 14. Cardiovascular System 213 The Heart 213 Coronary Circulation 218 Conducting System of the Heart 220 Control of Heart Rate 221 Cardiac Cycle 221 Cardiac Output 222 Pulse 222 Heart Sounds 223 Electrocardiogram (ECG) 223 Some Disorders of the Heart 225 Blood Pressure 225 Disorders of Blood Pressure 226 Effect of Exercise on Cardiovascular System 227 Blood Vessels 228 Arteries 228 Arterioles 229 Veins 230 Venules 231 Capillaries 232 Sinusoids 232 Mechanisms Controlling Blood Flow Through the Capillary Bed 232 Factors Influencing Blood Flow Through Vessels 234 Some Diseases of Blood Vessels 234 15. Respiratory System 235 Nasal Cavity 237 The Paranasal Sinuses 239 The Pharynx 239 The Larynx 241 The Trachea 243 The Lungs 244 The Pleura 249 Some Physiological Considerations 249 Acid-Base Balance 253 Some Clinical Conditions 254Contents xi 16. The Alimentary Canal 256 The Oral Cavity and Pharynx 256 The Salivary Glands 258 The Teeth 260 The Tongue 261 The Pharynx 263 Basic Pattern of the Structure of the Alimentary Canal 265 Individual Parts of the Alimentary Canal 267 The Oesophagus 267 The Stomach 267 The Small Intestine 275 The Large Intestine 282 17. Liver and Pancreas 290 The Liver 290 Histology of the Liver 293 Functions of the Liver 296 Extrahepatic Biliary Apparatus 298 The Gallbladder 298 The Bile Duct 299 The Pancreas 301 Histology of the Pancreas 303 18. Nutrition, Digestion and Metabolism 306 Nutrition 306 Carbohydrates 306 Proteins 307 Fats or Lipids 308 Vitamins 309 Digestion and Absorption 310 Metabolism 312 Carbohydrate Metabolism 313 Protein Metabolism 315 Fat Metabolism 315 19. The Urinary System 317 The Kidneys 317 Functions of the Kidneys 317 Basic Structure of the Kidney 318 The Uriniferous Tubules 323 Production of Urine 332 Some Other Functions of the Kidney 336 Some Diseases of the Kidneys 337 Kidney Function Tests 339 The Ureters 340 The Urinary Bladder 342 The Urethra 344 The Male Urethra 344xii Handbook of Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses (For GNM Students) The Female Urethra 346 Micturition 346 20. Male Reproductive Organs 348 The Perineum 349 The Testis and Epididymis 352 Seminiferous Tubules 353 The Ductus Deferens 356 The Spermatic Cord 356 Seminal Vesicle 358 The Penis 359 The Prostate 360 Semen 361 Testosterone 362 Some Diseases of Reproductive Organs 363 Disorders of Male Genital Tract 363 21. Female Reproductive Organs 364 Gross Anatomy and Histology of Female Reproductive Organs 364 The Ovaries 367 Oogenesis 369 The Uterine Tubes 372 The Uterus 374 The Vagina 375 The Mammary Glands 376 Menstrual Cycle 376 Hormones Influencing Ovulation and Menstruation 379 Oestrogens 380 Progesterone 381 Physiology of Pregnancy 381 Fertilization 381 Placenta 383 Physiological Changes in the Mother during Pregnancy 383 Lactation 385 Contraceptives 386 Some Diseases of Female Reproductive Organs 387 22. The Endocrine System 388 Hypothalamus 388 The Hypophysis Cerebri (Pituitary Gland) 389 Adenohypophysis (Pars Anterior) 390 Neurohypophysis (Pars Posterior) 392 The Pineal Gland 394 The Thyroid Gland 395 The Parathyroid Glands 400 Hormones Controlling Calcium Metabolism 401 The Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands 402 The Suprarenal Medulla 404 Pancreatic Islets 405Contents xiii Clinical Correlations of Endocrine Organs 406 Hypophysis Cerebri 406 Thyroid Gland 407 Parathyroid Glands 407 Pancreas 408 Suprarenal Glands 408 23. The Nervous System 409 Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal 409 The Spinal Cord 410 Spinal Nerves and Spinal Segments 411 Gross Anatomy of the Brainstem 414 Internal Structure of the Brainstem 417 Physiology of Pain 423 Gross Anatomy of the Cerebellum 423 Gross Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres 427 Exterior of the Cerebral Hemispheres 427 Further Subdivisions of the Superolateral Surface 430 Some Structures within the Cerebral Hemispheres 435 Important Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex 437 White Matter of Cerebral Hemispheres 439 The Internal Capsule 439 Corpus Callosum 440 Some Important Tracts 440 Descending Tracts Ending in the Spinal Cord 442 Descending Tracts Ending in the Brainstem 444 Ascending Tracts 445 Spinocerebellar Pathways 447 Some Important Masses of Grey Matter 448 The Cerebral Cortex 448 The Thalamus 448 The Hypothalamus 449 Corpus Striatum 451 The Ventricles of the Brain 452 Cerebrospinal Fluid 455 Some Clinical Considerations 455 Disorders of Motor Function 456 Disorders of Equilibrium 457 Abnormal Movements 458 Sensory Disorders 459 Referred Pain 459 Spinal Reflexes 460 The Autonomic Nervous System 461 The Sympathetic Trunk 461 24. The Eye and Ear 463 The Eye 463 The Eyelids and Conjunctiva 463 The Eyeball 465xiv Handbook of Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses (For GNM Students) The Retina 469 Muscles of the Orbit 470 The Visual Pathway 473 Mechanism of Vision 473 Reflexes Related to the Eyeball 476 Some Diseases of the Eye 477 The Ear and Some Related Structures 478 The Auricle 479 External Acoustic Meatus 480 The Middle Ear 480 The Internal Ear 484 Organ of Corti and Mechanism of Hearing 488 Some Diseases of the Ear 491 PART 4: FURTHER LEARNING THROUGH PICTURES 25. Some Important Regions 495 26. Some Important Bones 545 The Clavicle 545 The Scapula 546 The Humerus 548 The Radius 550 The Ulan 552 Bones of the Wrist and Hand 554 The Hip Bone–1 555 The Hip Bone–2 556 The Pelvis 557 The Femur 558 The Tibia 560 The Fibula 562 Bones of the Foot 564 Typical Thoracic Vertebrae 565 Cervical Vertebrae 566 Lumbar Vertebrae 568 The Sacrum 570 The Sternum and Ribs 572 The Skull 574 Cranial Fossae 576 The Mandible 577 27. Some Important Arteries and Veins 578 Main Arteries of the Body 579 Main Veins of the Body 580 Index 585